Since this book is also intended for nonspecialists, I have generally limited the references to available translations when referring to contemporary sources, even though as a rule I have studied them in the original Latin, Old Norse, or Old English. Because I have always included references according to the usual systems (books and chapters, lines, years, etc.), scholars will have little problem finding the appropriate place in the standard editions. Viking studies is a large and lively field; in order not to overload the notes, I have annotated sparingly.
1. R. M. Liuzza, Beowulf (2nd ed. Peterborough, Ont., 2013).
2. Tom Christensen, “Lejre and Roskilde,” in The Viking World, ed. Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon, 2008), 121–125.
3. Roberta Frank, “The Invention of the Viking Horned Helmet,” in International Scandinavian and Medieval Studies in Memory of Gerd Wolfgang Weber, ed. Michael Dallapiazza (Trieste, 2000), 199–208.
4. P. H. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, A.D. 700–1100 (London and New York, 1982).
5. R. I. Page, “A Most Vile People”: Early English Historians on the Vikings (London, 1987).
6. Reallexikon des germanischen Altertumskunde (2nd ed. Berlin, 1967–2007) 35.687–696, s.v. “Wiking,” by Thorsten Andersson and Klaus Böldl.
1. René Merlet, ed., La chronique de Nantes (Paris, 1896).
2. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 837, trans. Janet Nelson, The Annals of St-Bertin, Ninth-Century Histories 1 (Manchester, 1991), 37. [258]
3. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 843, trans. Nelson, 55.
4. The quoted sources are found in the Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 836, 844, 864, and 873 (kept up by Prudentius 835–861 and by Hincmar 861–882), trans. Nelson, 35, 60, 111, and 183; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 844, ed. and trans. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill, The Annals of Ulster (to A.D. 1131) ([Dublin], 1983), 302–303; and the D version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. Michael Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (London, 1996), 111.
5. Anders Winroth, The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe (New Haven, 2012), 24.
6. Alcuini sive Albini epistolae 20, trans. Paul Edward Dutton, Carolingian Civilization: A Reader (Peterborough, Ont., 1993), 109–110. Alcuin quoted, among other scriptural passages, Isaiah 5:25.
7. [C. Smedt], “Translatio S. Germani Parisiensis anno 846 secundum primævam narrationem e codice Namurcensi,” Analecta Bollandiana 2 (1883): 69–98.
8. David Morgan, The Mongols (2nd ed. Oxford, 2007).
9. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Uppsala University, U 112. http://www.nordiska.uu.se/forskn/samnord.htm.
10. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 374.
11. Magnúsdrápa 10, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, edited by Margaret Clunies Ross (Turnhout, 2007–), 2.1.219–220.
12. Halldórr ókristni, Eiriksflokkr 7, ed. and trans. Kari Ellen Gade in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.482–483; Haraldr harðráði Sigurðarson, Lausavísa 7, ed. and trans. Kari Ellen Gade in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.48–49.
13. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 1012, trans. Swanton, 142.
14. Völuspá 24, trans. Carolyne Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation (Oxford, 1996), 7 (my adapted translation).
15. Battle of Maldon, lines 108–111, 114–119, 134–136, 138–146, 149–153, trans. S.A.J. Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry (London, 1982), 518–528 (my translation leaning on published translations).
16. Brian R. Campbell, “The ‘suþerne gar’ in ‘The Battle of Maldon,’” Notes and Queries 16, no. 2 (1969): 45–46.
17. Battle of Maldon, lines 160–161.
18. Per Holck, “The Skeleton from the Gokstad Ship: New Evaluation of an Old Find,” Norwegian Archaeological Review 42, no. 1 (2009): 40–49.
19. Sigvatr Þórðarson, Víkingarvísur 6, ed. and trans. Judith Jesch in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.542–545; Hilda Ellis Davidson, The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature (Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1998).
20. Alan Williams, “A Metallurgical Study of Some Viking Swords,” Gladius: Estudios sobre armas antiquas, arte militar y vida cultural en oriente y occidente 29 (2009): 121–184.
21. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 62.
22. Page, “A Most Vile People.” [259]
23. Sigvatr, Knútsdrápa 1, ed. and trans. Matthew Townend in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.651–652.
24. See chapter 9.
25. Sigvatr, Erfidrápa Óláfs helga 27, ed. and trans. Judith Jesch in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.696.
26. Þjódólfr ór Hvíni, Ynglingatál 15, ed. Edith Marold in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.34.
27. [Eiríkur Jónsson and Finnur Jónsson, eds.], Hauksbók udgiven efter de Arnamagnæanske Håndskrifter No. 371, 544 og 675, 4o samt forskellige Papirshåndskrifter af det Kongelige Nordiske Oldskrift-Selskab (Copenhagen, 1892–1896), 464.
28. My translation, using Saxo Grammaticus, The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus, trans. Oliver Elton (London, 1905), and Saxo Grammaticus, The History of the Danes, trans. Peter Fischer and ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson (Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1979), 1.206.
29. Ynglingasaga 6, trans. Lee M. Hollander in Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway (Austin, 1964), 10.
30. Britt-Mari Näsström, Bärsärkarna: Vikingatidens elitsoldater (Stockholm, 2006); Vincent Samson, Les Berserkir: Les guerriers-fauves dans la Scandinavie ancienne, de l’âge de Vendel aux Vikings (VIe–XIe siècle), Histoire et civilisations: Histoire (Villeneuve d’Ascq, 2011).
31. Þórbjörn hornklofi, Haraldskvæði 8, ed. and trans. R. D. Fulk in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.102–103, adapted. See also Klaus von See, “Exkurs zum Haraldskvæði: Berserker,” Zeitschrift für deutsche Wortforschung 17 (1961): 129–135.
32. Lines 25–26, 29–34.
33. Lines 160–161.
34. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 852 and 868, trans. Nelson, 74 and 144.
35. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 991, trans. Swanton, 126–127.
36. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 344.
37. See, e.g., Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 863, 864, 873, trans. Nelson, 105, 118, and 183.
38. Royal Frankish Annals, s.a. 774, trans. Bernhard W. Scholz with Barbara Rogers, Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard’s Histories (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1970), 50–51.
39. Royal Frankish Annals, s.a. 796, trans. Scholz with Rogers, 74; Einhard, The Life of Charlemagne 13, trans. Dutton, Carolingian Civilization, 31.
40. Einhard’s Annals, s.a. 774, ed. Friedrich Kurze, Annales regni Francorum inde ab a. 741 usque ad a. 829, MGH: SS rer. Germ. (Hanover, 1895), 41.
41. Einhard’s Annals, s.a. 785, ed. Kurze, 69.
42. Royal Frankish Annals, s.a. 795, trans. Scholz with Rogers, 74.
43. Timothy Reuter, “Plunder and Tribute in the Carolingian Empire,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 35 (1985): 75–94, reprinted in Timothy Reuter and Janet L. Nelson, Medieval Polities and Modern Mentalities (Cambridge, 2006), 231–250.
44. H. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, “Das Chronicon Laurissense breve,” Neues Archiv 36 (1911): 13–39. [260]
1. As counted by Statistics Sweden: http://www.scb.se/namnsok. The Russian form of the name, Rurik, had 169 carriers.
2. Lena Peterson, Nordiskt runnamnslexikon med tillägg av frekvenstabeller och finalalfabetisk ordlista (Uppsala, 2002), 106.
3. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Ög 153.
4. Annales Fuldenses, s.a. 850, trans. Timothy Reuter, The Annals of Fulda, Ninth-Century Histories 2 (Manchester, 1992), 30. Roric’s story is well told in Simon Coupland, “From Poachers to Game-Keepers: Scandinavian Warlords and Carolingian Kings,” Early Medieval Europe 7 (1998): 85–114.
5. Sedulii Scotti carmina 47.11, ed. Ludwig Traube, MGH: Poetae 3 (Berlin, 1896), 210.
6. Ruotpertus Mediolacensis, Vita et Miracula S. Adalberti Egmondani, ed. Oswald Holder-Egger, MGH: Scriptores (Hanover, 1888), 15.2.702.
7. Flodoardus Remensis, Historia Remensis ecclesiae 3.23 and 3.26, ed. Martina Stratman, Historia Remensis ecclesiae, MGH: Scriptores 36 (Hanover, 1998), 307 and 336.
8. Russian Primary Chronicle, s.a. 6368–6370 (860–862), trans. Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), 59.
9. Simon Franklin and Jonathan Shepard, The Emergence of Rus: 750–1200, Longman History of Russia (London, 1996).
10. Russian Primary Chronicle, s.a. 6368–6370 (860–862), trans. Cross and Sherbowitz-Wetzor, 59.
11. Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 1.1, trans. William Dudley Foulke, History of the Lombards, Sources of Medieval History (Philadelphia, 1974), 1.
12. Jordanes, Getica 4, trans. in Jordanes, The Gothic History of Jordanes in English Version, ed. Charles Christopher Mierow (Princeton, N.J., 1915), 57.
13. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 876, trans. Swanton, 74–75.
14. D. M. Hadley, The Vikings in England: Settlement, Society and Culture, Manchester Medieval Studies (Manchester, 2006); Dawn M. Hadley, “The Creation of the Danelaw,” in The Viking World, ed. Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon, 2008), 375–378.
15. Robin Fleming, Britain after Rome: The Fall and Rise, 400–1070, Penguin History of Britain (London, 2010).
16. Hadley, The Vikings in England, 45–50.
17. Hadley, The Vikings in England, 237–264.
18. Hadley, “The Creation of the Danelaw.”
19. Benjamin T. Hudson, Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in the North Atlantic (Oxford, 2005); Hadley, The Vikings in England, 28–71.
20. James Henthorn Todd, ed. and trans., Cogadh Gaedhel re Gaillaibh: The Wars of the Irish against the Foreigners, or The Invasions of Ireland by the Danes and Other Norsemen, Rerum Britannicarum medii aevi scriptores [Roll series] 78 (London, 1867), 159. [261]
21. Timothy Bolton, The Empire of Cnut the Great: Conquest and the Consolidation of Power in Northern Europe in the Early Eleventh Century, The Northern World: North Europe and the Baltic, c. 400–1700 A.D: Peoples, Economies and Cultures (Leiden, 2009), 128–132.
22. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 56.
23. S. Goodacre et al., “Genetic Evidence for a Family-Based Scandinavian Settlement of Shetland and Orkney during the Viking Periods,” Heredity 95 (2005): 129–135.
24. Judith Jesch, Women in the Viking Age (Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1991), 96–123.
25. Shane McLeod, “Warriors and Women: The Sex Ratio of Norse Immigrants to Eastern England up to 900 AD,” Early Medieval Europe 19 (2011): 332–353.
26. Matthew Townend, Language and History in Viking Age England: Linguistic Relations between Speakers of Old Norse and Old English, Studies in the Early Middle Ages (Turnhout, 2002).
27. I warmly thank my friend and colleague Professor Roberta Frank for permission to reproduce her text, which she composed for teaching purposes when we taught Viking culture together at Yale University.
28. Gillian Fellows-Jenssen, The Vikings and Their Victims: The Evidence of the Names (London, 1995); Jesch, Women in the Viking Age, 77–78; Gillian Fellows-Jenssen, “Scandinavian Place-Names in the British Isles,” in The Viking World, ed. Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon, 2008), 391–400.
29. James H. Barrett, “The Norse in Scotland,” in The Viking World, ed. Brink and Price, 411–427.
30. Gwyn Jones, A History of the Vikings (London, 1968), 289–311; Kirsten A. Seaver, The Frozen Echo: Greenland and the Exploration of North America, ca. A.D. 1000–1500 (Stanford, 1996); William W. Fitzhugh and Elisabeth I. Ward, eds., Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga (Washington, D.C., 2000), 280–349; Jette Arneborg, Georg Nyegaard, and Orri Vésteinsson, eds., Norse Greenland: Selected Papers from the Hvalsey Conference 2008, Journal of the North Atlantic, special volume 2 (2012).
31. Niels Lynnerup, “Life and Death in Norse Greenland,” in Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, ed. Fitzhugh and Ward, 290–292.
32. Lynnerup, “Life and Death in Norse Greenland,” 286–287.
33. Seaver, The Frozen Echo.
34. Jette Arneborg and Hans Christian Gulløv, eds., Man, Culture and Environment in Ancient Greenland: Report on a Research Programme (Copenhagen, 1998).
35. Joel Berglund, “The Farm beneath the Sand,” in Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, ed. Fitzhugh and Ward, 295–303.
36. Ívarr Bárðarson, Det gamle Grønlands beskrivelse, ed. Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1930).
37. Hans Christian Petersen, “The Norse Legacy in Greenland,” in Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, ed. Fitzhugh and Ward, 342.
38. Hildur Hermóðsdóttir, Icelandic Turf Houses, trans. Anna Yates (Reykjavik, 2012); Jesse L. Byock, Viking Age Iceland (London, 2001), 34–42. [262]
1. Royal Frankish Annals, s.a. 810, trans. Scholz with Rogers, 91–92.
2. Max Vinner, Viking Ship Museum Boats (Roskilde, 2002), 14–17.
3. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 851, trans. Swanton, 64–65; Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 859, trans. Nelson, 90.
4. Battle of Maldon, lines 29–41.
5. Erik Nylén, Bygden, skeppen och havet, Antikvariskt arkiv 49 (Stockholm, 1973).
6. Heimskringla, trans. Hollander in Snorri, Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, 221.
7. Judith Jesch, Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse (Woodbridge, 2001), 128–132.
8. Sigvatr Þórðarson, Flokkr about Erlingr Skjálgsson 1, ed. and trans. Judith Jesch in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.631
9. Vinner, Viking Ship Museum Boats, 14–17.
10. Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, Magnússflokkr 2 and 4, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.65, 68.
11. “Havhingsten fra Glendalough (Skuldelev 2),” Viking Ship Museum, http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/research/ship-reconstruction/skuldelev-2/.
12. Niels Lund et al., Two Voyagers at the Court of King Alfred: The Ventures of Ohthere and Wulfstan, Together with the Description of Northern Europe from the Old English Orosius (York, 1984); Janet Bately and Anton Englert, Ohthere’s Voyages: A Late 9th-Century Account of Voyages along the Coasts of Norway and Denmark and Its Cultural Context (Roskilde, 2007); Vinner, Viking Ship Museum Boats.
13. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 862 and 866, trans. Nelson, 98 and 131. See also Walther Vogel, Die Normannen und das fränkische Reich bis zur Gründung der Normandie (799–911), Heidelberger Abhandlungen zur mittleren und neueren Geschichte 14 (Heidelberg, 1906), 213–218.
14. Rudolph Keyser et al., Norges gamle love indtil 1387 (Christiania, 1846), 1.100.
15. Per Lundström, De kommo vida: Vikingars hamn vid Paviken på Gotland, Sjöhistoriska museets rapportserie 15 (Stockholm, 1981).
16. Eduard Mühle, “Gnezdovo—das alte Smolensk? Zur Deutung eines Siedlungskomplexes des ausgehenden 9. bis beginnend 11. Jahrhunderts,” Bericht der römisch-germanischen Kommission 69 (1988): 358–410; Eduard Mühle, Die städtischen Handelszentren der nordwestlichen Rus: Anfänge und frühe Entwicklung altrussischer Städte (bis gegen Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts), Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des östlichen Europa 32 (Stuttgart, 1991), 239–255; Franklin and Shepard, Emergence of Rus, 100–102, 127–128.
17. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 778.
18. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sö 179.
19. Sigvatr, Nesjavísur 5, ed. and trans. R. D. Fulk in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.563–564.
20. Landnámabók H2, trans. Jan Bill, “Ships and Seamanship,” in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings, ed. Peter Sawyer (Oxford, 1997), 198.
21. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 838, trans. Nelson, 39. [263]
22. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 876, trans. Swanton, 74.
23. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 258.
24. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 882, trans. Swanton, 76–79.
25. Steinn Herdísarson, Nizarvísur 1 and 4, ed. and trans. Kari Ellen Gade in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.360–363; Jesch, Ships and Men, 209–210.
26. Sigvatr, Flokkr about Erlingr Skjálgsson 1, ed. and trans. Judith Jesch in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.631.
27. This and the previous quotation come from Flokkr about Sveinn Álfifuson, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.1029–1030. Tying the ships together is also mentioned in Sigvatr, Nesjavísur 2, ed. and trans. Russell Poole in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.559–561.
28. Sigvatr, Flokkr 2, ed. and trans. Jesch, 632.
29. Sigvatr, Nesjavísur 7, ed. and trans. Poole, 1.2.566–568.
30. Arnórr jarlaskáld Þórðarson, Þórfinnsdrápa 21, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.254–255.
31. Arnórr, Þórfinnsdrápa 6, ed. and trans. Whaley, 236–237; Sigvatr, Flokkr 2; Sigvatr, Nesjavísur 8, ed. and trans. Poole, 568–569.
32. Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, Stanzas about Magnús Óláfsson in Danaveldi 1, ed. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.88–89.
33. Arnórr, Magnússdrápa 15, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.225.
34. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sö 164; Jesch, Ships and Men, 120.
35. Torsten Capelle, “Schiffsetzungen,” Praehistorische Zeitschrift 61 (1986): 1–62.
36. Tove Werner, “Stenskepp i Södermanland: Utbredning och datering,” Fornvännen 98 (2003): 257–264.
37. Beowulf 26–29, 32–42, 47–50, trans. Liuzza, 49–50.
38. Beowulf 50–52, trans. Liuzza, 50.
39. Michael Müller-Wille, Bestattung im Boot. Studien zu einer nordeuropäischen Grabsitte, Offa 25/26 (Neumünster, 1970); Neil Price, “Dying and the Dead: Viking Age Mortuary Behaviour,” in The Viking World, ed. Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon, 2008), 257–273.
40. Þór Magnússon, “Bátkumlið í Vatnsdal í Patreksfirði,” Árbok Hins íslenzka fornleifafélags 63 (1966): 5–32; Kristján Eldjárn, Kuml og haugfé úr heiðnum sið á Íslandi, ed. Adolf Friðriksson (2nd ed. Reykjavik, 2000), 115–119. The grave was reused when, apparently, the bones of several other dead people were moved there. The judgment that it was first constructed for a woman rests on the grave goods found in it.
41. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, N 138, ed. Norges innskrifter med de yngre runer, Norges innskrifter indtil reformationen, afd 2 (Oslo, 1941–), 2.165–168.
42. Terje Gansum, “Fra jord till handling,” in Plats och praxis: Arkeologiska och religionshistoriska studier av norrön ritual, ed. Kristina Jennbert, Anders Andrén, and Catharina Raudvere, Vägar till Midgård 2 (Lund, 2001), 249–286; RGA 22.306–311, s.v. “Oseberg,” by E. Nyman, T. Gansum, A. E. Christensen, and K. Düwel. [264]
43. Bengt Schönbäck and Lena Thunmark-Nylén, “De vikingatida båtgravarna i Valsgärde—relativ kronologi,” Fornvännen 97 (2002): 1–8; RGA 35.375–379, s.v. “Valsgärde,” by J. Ljungkvist.
44. The quotations here are chiefly from James E. Montgomery, “Ibn Fadlan and the Russiyah,” Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 3 (2000): 1–25. For clarification I have used Richard N. Frye, Ibn Fadlan’s Journey to Russia: A Tenth-Century Traveler from Baghad to the Volga River (Princeton, N.J., 2005), and Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone, Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North (London, 2012).
45. Aziz al-Azmeh, “Barbarians in Arab Eyes,” Past and Present 134 (1992): 3–18.
1. Stavgard is run by Föreningen Stavgard, whose website has more information: http://www.stavgardgotland.com.
2. Dagens Nyheter, 19 June 2012, http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/skarpta-straff-for-fornminnesbrott/.
3. Ann-Marie Pettersson, ed., Spillingsskatten: Gotland i vikingatidens världshandel (Visby, 2008); RGA 29.366–367, s.v. “Spillings,” by Majvor Östergren.
4. Frye, Ibn Fadlan’s Journey to Russia, 65.
5. Roman K. Kovalev and Alexis C. Kaelin, “Circulation of Arab Silver in Medieval Afro-Eurasia: Preliminary Observations,” History Compass 5, no. 2 (2007): 560–580, http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478–0542.2006.00376.x.
6. M.A.S. Blackburn and Kenneth Jonsson, “The Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Element of North European Coin Finds,” in Viking-Age Coinage in the Northern Lands, ed. M.A.S. Blackburn and M. S. Metcalf, BAR International ser. 122 (Oxford, 1981): 147–255.
7. Dagfinn Skree, ed., Kaupang in Skiringssal, Kaupang Excavation Project Publication Series 1 = Norske Oldfunn 22 (Aarhus, 2007).
8. Lund et al., Two Voyagers at the Court of King Alfred; Bately and Englert, Ohthere’s Voyages.
9. P. H. Sawyer, “Kings and Merchants,” in Early Medieval Kingship, ed. P. H. Sawyer and I. N. Wood (Leeds, 1977), 139–158.
10. RGA 13.584, s.v. “Handel.”
11. Lundström, De kommo vida.
12. Rimbert, Life of Ansgar 24, trans. Charles H. Robinson, Anskar, the Apostle of the North, 801–865: Translated from the Vita Anskarii by Bishop Rimbert, His Fellow Missionary and Successor ([London], 1921), 84.
13. Herbert Jankuhn, Haithabu: Ein Handelsplatz der Wikingerzeit (3rd ed. Neumünster, 1956).
14. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, DR 1; Wolfgang Laur, Runendenkmäler in Schleswig-Holstein und in Nordschleswig (2nd ed. Schleswig, 2009).
15. Lausavísur from Haralds saga Sigurðsonar 2, ed. and trans. Kari Ellen Gade in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.2.816–817.
16. Birgit Maixner, Haithabu: Fernhandelszentrum zwischen den Welten (Schleswig, 2010). [265]
17. Lunde and Stone, Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness, 163.
18. Rimbert, Life of Ansgar 10 and 33, trans. Robinson, 47 and 104.
19. Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen scholion 126, trans. Francis Joseph Tschan and Timothy Reuter, Records of Western Civilization (New York, 2002), 201.
20. Helen Clarke and Björn Ambrosiani, Towns in the Viking Age (Leicester, 1991), 73; Adam, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen scholion 142, trans. Tschan and Reuter, 210.
21. Lund et al., Two Voyagers at the Court of King Alfred; Anton Englert and Athena Trakadas, eds., Wulfstan’s Voyage: The Baltic Sea Region in the Early Viking Age as Seen from Shipboard (Roskilde, 2009).
22. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 214–215.
23. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sö 198.
24. Jordanes, Gothic History 3.21, trans. in Jordanes, The Gothic History of Jordanes in English Version, 7.
25. Adam, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen 4.18, trans. Tschan and Reuter, 199.
26. Lund et al., Two Voyagers at the Court of King Alfred; Bately and Englert, Ohthere’s Voyages.
27. Per G. P. Ericson, Elisabeth Iregren, and Maria Vretemark, “Animal Exploitation at Birka—A Preliminary Report,” Fornvännen 83 (1988): 81–88.
28. Kovalev and Kaelin, “Circulation of Arab Silver in Medieval Afro-Eurasia.”
29. Janet Martin, Treasure of the Land of Darkness: The Fur Trade and Its Significance for Medieval Russia (Cambridge, 1986); Christian Lübke, Fremde im östlichen Europa: Von Gesellschaften ohne Staat zu verstaatlichten Gesellschaften (9.–11. Jahrhundert), Ostmitteleuropa in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Cologne, 2001).
30. Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World, trans. Jane Marie Todd (Cambridge, Mass., 2009).
31. Michael McCormick, “New Light on the ‘Dark Ages’: How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy,” Past and Present, no. 177 (2002): 17–54.
32. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 1048, trans. Swanton, 166.
33. Flodoard, Annals, s.a. 923, trans. in Flodoard, The Annals of Flodoard of Reims, 919–966, trans. Bernard S. Bachrach and Steven Fanning, Readings in Medieval Civilizations and Cultures 9 (Peterborough, Ont., 2004), 9.
34. Adam, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen 4.6, trans. Tschan and Reuter, 190.
35. Life of Rimbert 18, ed. Georg Waitz, Vita Anskarii auctore Rimberti: Accedit Vita Rimberti, MGH: SS rer. Germ. (Hanover, 1884), 95–96.
36. Fitzhugh and Ward, Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, 312.
37. Richard Abels, “What Has Weland to Do with Christ? The Franks Casket and the Acculturation of Christianity in Early Anglo-Saxon England,” Speculum 84 (2009): 549–581.
38. Sigvatr, Lausavísa 9, ed. and trans. R. D. Fulk in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.710–712. See also Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 77–78.
39. Agnes Geijer, Die Textilfunde aus den Gräbern, Birka: Untersuchungen und Studien 3 (Stockholm, 1938). [266]
40. Lunde and Stone, Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness.
41. Annika Larsson, “Vikingar begravda i kinesiskt siden,” Valör, no. 3/4 (2008): 33–43.
42. Egon Wamers, “Kristne gjenstander i tidligvikingtidens Danmark,” in Kristendommen i Danmark før 1050, ed. Niels Lund ([Roskilde], 2004), 43–59; Egon Wamers and Michael Brandt, Die Macht des Silbers: Karolingische Schätze im Norden (Regensburg, 2005)
43. Rimbert, Life of Ansgar 20 and 24, trans. Robinson, 70–73 and 84.
44. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 834, 835, 836, and 837, trans. Nelson, 30–37.
45. Peter Spufford, Money and Its Use in Medieval Europe (Cambridge and New York, 1988); J. L. Bolton, Money in the Medieval English Economy, 973–1489 (Manchester, 2012).
46. Spufford, Money and Its Use in Medieval Europe, 55–73; Philip Grierson, M.A.S. Blackburn, and Lucia Travaini, Medieval European Coinage: With a Catalogue of the Coins in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (Cambridge, 1986), 190–266; Adriaan E. Verhulst, The Carolingian Economy, Cambridge Medieval Textbooks (New York, 2002), 117–118.
47. Annals of Ulster, s.a. 824, ed. and trans. Mac Airt and Mac Niocaill, 281.
48. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 858, trans. Nelson, 86.
49. Georges Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century, World Economic History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1974), 118.
50. Annals of St-Bertin, s.a. 873, trans. Nelson, 185.
51. Mark Blackburn, “Money and Coinage,” in The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 1, ed. Rosamond McKitterick (Cambridge, 1995), 557.
52. Sture Bolin, “Mohammed, Charlemagne and Rurik,” Scandinavian Economic History Review 1 (1953): 5–39; Spufford, Money and Its Use in Medieval Europe, 68; Michael McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce A.D. 300–900 (Cambridge, 2001); McCormick, “New Light on the ‘Dark Ages’”; Kovalev and Kaelin, “Circulation of Arab Silver in Medieval Afro-Eurasia: Preliminary Observations.”
53. Heiko Steuer, “Der Handel der Wikingerzeit zwischen Nord- und Westeuropa aufgrund archäologischer Zeugnisse,” in Untersuchungen zu Handel und Verkehr der vor- und frühgeschichtlichen Zeit in Mittel- und Nordeuropa, vol. 4, Der Handel der Karolinger- und Wikingerzeit: Bericht über die Kolloquien der Kommission für die Altertumskunde Mittel- und Nordeuropas in den Jahren 1980 bis 1983, ed. Klaus Düwel et al. (Göttingen, 1987), 113–197; Ingrid Gustin, “Means of Payment and the Use of Coins in the Viking Age Town of Birka in Sweden: Preliminary Results,” Current Swedish Archaeology 6 (1998): 73–83.
54. See chapter 7.
55. Ola Kyhlberg, “Vågar och viktlod: Diskussion kring frågor om precision och noggrannhet,” Fornvännen 70 (1975): 156–165; Ola Kyhlberg, Vikt och värde: Arkeologiska studier i värdemätning, betalningsmedel och metrologi under yngre järnålder: 1. Helgö, 2. Birka, Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 1 (Stockholm, 1980).
56. James H. Barrett, Alison M. Locker, and Callum M. Roberts, “‘Dark Age Economics’ Revisited: The English Fish Bone Evidence, AD 600–1600,” [267]Antiquity 78 (2004): 618–636; James Campbell, “Domesday Herrings,” in East Anglia’s History: Studies in Honor of Norman Scarfe, ed. Christopher Harper-Bill, Carole Rawcliffe, and Richard G. Wilson (Woodbridge, 2002), 5–17.
57. Jan Bill, “Viking Ships and the Sea,” in The Viking World, ed. Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon, 2008), 170–180.
58. Adam, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen scholion 142, , trans. Tschan and Reuter, 210.
59. Brita Malmer, Den svenska mynthistorien: Vikingatiden ca 995–1030 (Stockholm, 2010).
60. Ildar H. Garipzanov, The Symbolic Language of Authority in the Carolingian World (c. 751–877), Brill’s Series on the Early Middle Ages 16 (Leiden, 2008).
1. Sigvatr Þórðarson, Erfidrápa Óláfs helga 2 and 21, ed. Judith Jesch in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.666–668 and 689–691.
2. Einarr skálaglamm Helgason, Vellekla 32, ed. and trans. Edith Marold in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.323–324.
3. Peter Sawyer, Da Danmark blev Danmark: Fra ca. år 700 til ca. 1050, trans. Marie Hvidt, Gyldendal-Politikens Danmarkshistorie (Copenhagen, 1988), 3.82.
4. Mats Burström, Arkeologisk samhällsavgränsning: En studie av vikingatida samhällsterritorier i Smålands inland, Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 9 (Stockholm, 1991); Åke Hyenstrand, Lejonet, draken och korset: Sverige 500–1000 (Lund, 1996), 21–36. Per H. Ramqvist, “Perspektiv på lokal variation och samhälle i Nordens folkvandringstid,” in Samfundsorganisation og regional variation: Norden i romersk jernålder og folkevandringstid (Aarhus, 1991), reconstructs fifteen independent “petty kingdoms” in early Scandinavia.
5. Jordanes, De origine actibusque Getarum, 19–24, ed. by Francesco Giunta and Antonino Grillone, Fonti per la storia d’Italia 117 (Rome, 1991), 9–11. A detailed discussion of this passage is found in Josef Svennung, Jordanes und Scandia: Kritisch-exegetische Studien, Skrifter utgivna av K. Humanistiska vetenskapssamfundet i Uppsala 44:2A (Stockholm, 1967). Cf., e.g., Hyenstrand, Lejonet, draken och korset: Sverige 500–1000, 39–40. Procopius, who was a contemporary of Jordanes, stated that thirteen different peoples lived in Scandinavia: History of the Wars 6.15.3, trans. H. B. Dewing, The Loeb Classical Library 107 (Cambridge, Mass., 1919), 414–415. Several tenth-century runic inscriptions mention Finnveden; see Sven B. F. Jansson, The Runes of Sweden (Stockholm, 1962), 63 and 74–75; and Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sm 35.
6. Byock, Viking Age Iceland.
7. Royal Frankish Annals, s.a. 814, trans. Scholz with Rogers, 97–99.
8. Sigvatr Þórðarson, Bersǫglisvísur 2, ed. and trans. Kari Ellen Gade in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.14–15.
9. Arnórr jarlaskald, fragment 4, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley, The Poetry of Arnórr Jarlaskáld: An Edition and Study, Westfield Publications in Medieval Studies 8 (Turnhout, 1998), 134 and 308–310.
10. Egill Skallagrimsson, Höfuðlausn 17, ed. Finnur Jónsson, Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning (Copenhagen, 1912), B:1, 33. [268]
11. Arnórr jarlaskald, Haraldsdrápa 13, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1. 274. These lines are capable of several interpretations, as outlined by Whaley, 275.
12. Beowulf, lines 2633–2638, trans. Liuzza, 128.
13. Beowulf, lines 2847, 2850, 2890–2891, trans. Liuzza, 134–135.
14. Bjarni Einarsson, ed., Ágrip af Nóregskonunga sǫgum: Fagrskinna—Noregs konunga tal, Íslenzk fornrit 29 (Reykjavik, 1985), 87; Alison Finlay, Fagrskinna: A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway (Leiden, 2004), 67
15. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, DR 291.
16. Thorfinnsdrápa 2, ed. and trans. Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.232.
17. Beowulf 1020–1049, trans. Liuzza, 80.
18. Sigurðardrápa 6, ed. Finnur, Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, B:1, 69–70; Klaus Düwel, Das Opferfest von Lade: Quellenkritische Untersuchungen zur germanischen Religionsgeschichte, Wiener Arbeiten zur germanischen Altertumskunde und Philologie 27 (Wien, 1985); Frands Herschend, Livet i hallen: Tre fallstudier i den yngre järnålderns aristokrati, Occasional Papers in Archaeology (Uppsala) 14 (Uppsala, 1997), 61–89.
19. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 739.
20. Judith Jesch, “In Praise of Ástríðr Óláfsdóttir,” Saga-Book 24 (1994–1997): 1–18; Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir, Women in Old Norse Literature: Bodies, Words, and Power (New York, 2013), 93–94.
21. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 159.
22. Bjørn Eithun, Magnus Rindal, and Tor Ulset, Den eldre Gulatingslova, Norrøne tekster 6 (Oslo, 1994), 32.
23. Steinar Imsen, Hirdloven til Norges konge og hans håndgangne menn (Oslo, 2000), 64.
24. Sverre Bagge, From Viking Stronghold to Christian Kingdom: State Formation in Norway, c. 900–1350 (Copenhagen, 2010); Hans Jacob Orning, Frem til 1400, Norvegr: Norges historie (Oslo, 2011).
25. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 13.
26. Generally, see Sawyer, Da Danmark blev Danmark; and Ole Fenger, “Kirker reses alle vegne”: 1050–1250, Gyldendal og Politikens Danmarkshistorie (Copenhagen, 1989).
27. Else Roesdahl, The Vikings (2nd ed. London, 1998), 93.
28. H. Hellmuth Andersen, Til hele rigets værn: Danevirkes arkæologi og historie (Højbjerg, 2004).
29. Anders Götherström, Acquired or Inherited Prestige? Molecular Studies of Family Structures and Local Horses in Central Svealand during the Early Medieval Period, Theses and Papers in Scientific Archaeology 4 (Stockholm, 2001).
30. http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/Fast-Facts.aspx.
31. A valuable summary of what is known about the burials in Jelling is found in Niels Lund, “Gorm den gamle og Thyre Danebod,” in Danske kongegrave, ed. Karin Kryger (Copenhagen, 2014). I wish to thank Professor Lund for allowing me to read the typescript of his essay before publication. The theory that Gorm was moved from the mound to the church is presented in Knud J. Krogh, Gåden om Kong Gorms grav: Historien om Nordhøjen i Jelling, Vikingekongernes [269]monumenter i Jelling 1 (Copenhagen, 1993). Preliminary reports from the recent exacavations in Jelling are found in the journal Skalk: Nyt om gammelt.
32. Andersen, Til hele rigets værn: Danevirkes arkæologi og historie, 53–57.
33. Generally, see Jón Viðar Sigurðsson, Norsk historie, 800–1300, Samlagets Norsk historie, 800–2000 (Oslo, 1999); Claus Krag, Norges historie fram til 1319 (Oslo, 2000); and Orning, Frem til 1400.
34. Generally, see Dick Harrison, 600–1350, Sveriges historia (Stockholm, 2009); and Dick Harrison and Kristina Ekero Svensson, Vikingaliv (Stockholm, 2009).
35. Thomas Lindkvist, Plundring, skatter och den feodala statens framväxt: Organisatoriska tendenser i Sverige under övergången från vikingatid till tidig medeltid, Opuscula historica Upsaliensia 1 (3rd ed. Uppsala, 1993).
1. Lars Andersson and Margareta Boije-Backe, Jarlabankeättens gravplats vid Broby bro: Arkeologisk delundersökning av gravplats med tre skelettgravar vid Broby bro, Täby socken och kommun, Uppland, Stockholms läns museum: Rapport 1999:4 (Stockholm, 1999).
2. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 110.
3. Rune Edberg, “Spår efter en tidig Jerusalemsfärd,” Fornvännen 101 (2006): 342–346; Johanne Autenrieth, Dieter Geuenich, and Karl Schmid, eds., Das Verbrüderungsbuch der Abtei Reichenau, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Libri memoriales et necrologia, Nova series 1 (Hanover, 1979), 151.
4. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 101, U 136, U 137, U 143, U 310.
5. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 140–144.
6. Ursula Dronke, The Poetic Edda (Oxford, 1969–2011), 2.176.
7. Birgit Sawyer, The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia (Oxford, 2000), 112.
8. Kurt Brøste et al., Prehistoric Man in Denmark: A Study in Physical Anthropology, vol. 3, Iron Age Man in Denmark, Nordiske fortidsminder Serie B—in quarto 8 (Copenhagen, 1984); Peter Bratt, ed., Forntid i ny dager (Stockholm, 1998), 168–176; Palle Eriksen et al., eds., Vikinger i vest: Vikingetiden i Vestjylland (Højbjerg, 2009).
9. Fredrik Svanberg, Vikingatiden i Skåne (Lund, 2000), 28–32.
10. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, N 184.
11. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 876, trans. Swanton, 75.
12. Jenny Jochens, Women in Old Norse Society (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Stig Welinder, Ellen Anne Pedersen, and Mats Widgren, Jordbrukets första femtusen år, Det svenska jordbrukets historia (Stockholm, 1998).
13. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Vs 24.
14. Andrew Dennis, Peter Godfrey Foote, and Richard Perkins, Laws of Early Iceland: The Codex Regius of Grágás with Material from Other Manuscripts, University of Manitoba Icelandic Studies 3 and 5 (Winnipeg, 1980–2000), 2.66; Jochens, Women in Old Norse Society, 116–118.
15. Rígsþula 16, trans. Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation, 248.
16. Óttar svarti, Hǫfudlausn, 5, ed. and trans. Matthew Townend in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.747–747; see also Jesch, Women in the Viking Age. [270]
17. Roesdahl, The Vikings, 34–38.
18. Kent Andersson, Glas från romare till vikingar (Uppsala, 2010).
19. Rígsþula 15, trans. Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation, 248.
20. Mette Iversen, ed., Mammen: Grav, kunst og samfund i vikingetid, Jysk Arkaeologisk Selskabs skrifter 28 (Højbjerg, 1991).
21. Dronke, The Poetic Edda, 2.181.
22. James Graham-Campbell and Magdalena Valor, eds., The Archaeology of Medieval Europe, Acta Jutlandica 83:1 (Århus, 2007), 192–207
23. Steen Hvass, “The Viking-Age Settlement of Vorbasse, Central Jutland,” Acta Archaeologica 50 (1979): 137–172.
24. Beowulf, lines 81–82, trans. Liuzza, 51.
25. Bratt, Forntid i ny dager, 222–230; Cecilia Åqvist, Sanda—en gård i södra Uppland: Bebyggelse från vendeltid till 1600-tal: Uppland, Fresta socken, Sanda 1:1, RAÄ 147, UV Mitt Rapport 2004:15 (Hägersten, 2006).
26. Rígsþula 8 and 12, trans. Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation, 248.
27. Roy C. Cave and Herbert H. Coulson, A Sourcebook for Medieval Economic History (New York, 1936), 46–48, as modernized by Jerome S. Arkenberg at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1000workers.asp.
28. Michael McCormick, Paul Edward Dutton, and Paul A. Mayewski, “Volcanoes and the Climate Forcing of Carolingian Europe, A.D. 750–950,” Speculum 82 (2007): 865–895.
29. Rodulfus Glaber, The Five Books of History 2.9.17, ed. and trans. John France, Oxford Medieval Texts (Oxford 1989), 81–83.
30. Beowulf, lines 3150–3155, trans. Liuzza, 143–144.
1. Einarr skálaglam Helgason, Vellekla 14, ed. Edith Marold in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.301–303. See also Christopher Abram, Myths of the Pagan North: The Gods of the Norsemen (London, 2011), 130.
2. Einarr, Vellekla 14, ed. Marold, 322–323. See also Abram, Myths of the Pagan North, 134.
3. Hávamál 156, trans. Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation, 36.
4. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia.
5. Konstantin Reichardt, “Die Thórsdrápa des Eilífr Godrúnarson: Textinterpretation,” Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 63, no. 2 (1948): 329–391; Roberta Frank, “Hand Tools and Power Tools in Eilífr’s Þórsdrápa,” in Structure and Meaning in Old Norse Literature: New Approaches to Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism, ed. John Lindow, Lars Lönnroth, and Gerd Wolfgang Weber (Odense, 1986), 94–109; Abram, Myths of the Pagan North.
6. Stefan Brink, “How Uniform Was the Old Norse Religion?,” in Learning and Understanding in the Old Norse World, ed. Judith Quinn, Kate Heslop, and Tarrin Wills (Turnhout, 2007), 106–136.
7. John Lindow, “Thor’s ‘hamarr,’” Journal of Germanic and English Philology 93, no. 4 (1994): 485–503; Thomas A. DuBois, Nordic Religions in the Viking Age (Philadelphia, 1999), 158–163; Sæbjørg Walaker Nordeide, The Viking Age as [271]a Period of Religious Transformation: The Christianization of Norway from AD 560–1150/1200, Studies in Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 2 (Turnhout, 2011), 235–244.
8. Lilla Kopár, Gods and Settlers: The Iconography of Norse Mythology in Anglo-Scandinavian Sculpture, Studies in the Early Middle Ages 25 (Turnhout, 2012), 58–68.
9. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 1161.
10. Bragi gamli, Ragnarsdrápa 16, ed. Finnur, Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, B:1, 4.
11. Úlfr Uggsson, Húsdrapa 6, ed. Finnur, Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, B:1, 129.
12. Roberta Frank, “Snorri and the Mead of Poetry,” in Speculum norroenum: Norse Studies in Memory of Gabriel Turville-Petre, ed. Ursula Dronke et al. (Odense, 1981), 155–170.
13. Otto Gschwantler, “Christus, Thor, und die Midgardschlange,” in Festschrift für Otto Höffler zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. Otto Gschwantler (Vienna, 1968), 145–168; Henrik Janson, “Snorre, Tors fiskafänge och frågan om den religionshistoriska kontexten,” in Hedendomen i historiens spegel: Bilder av det förkristna Norden, ed. Catharina Raudvere, Anders Andrén, and Kristina Jennbert, Vägar till Midgård 6 (Lund, 2005), 33–55.
14. Vafthrudnir’s Sayings 35, trans. Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation, 45. About lúðr, see Anne Holtsmark, “Det norrøne ord lúðr,” Maal og minne (1946): 48–65.
15. Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda: Norse Mythology (London, 2005), 15–16, adapted.
16. Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda, 33.
17. DuBois, Nordic Religions in the Viking Age, 150.
18. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, DR 220.
19. Adam, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen 4.26–27, trans. Tschan and Reuter, 207–208.
20. Thietmar of Merseburg, Chronicon 1.17, trans. David Warner, Ottonian Germany: The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg, Manchester Medieval Sources Series (Manchester, 2001), 80.
21. DuBois, Nordic Religions in the Viking Age, 48.
22. Olof Sundqvist, Per Vikstrand, and John Ljungkvist, eds., Gamla Uppsala i ny belysning, Religionsvetenskapliga studier från Gävle 9 (Uppsala, 2013).
23. Sigvatr Þórðarson, Austrfararvísur 4–5, ed. and trans. R. D. Fulk in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.589–591; trans. R. I. Page, Chronicles of the Vikings: Records, Memorials, and Myths (Toronto, 1995), 50.
24. Lunde and Stone, Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness, 163.
25. Völuspá 7, trans. Larrington, The Poetic Edda: A New Translation, 5.
26. Olaf Olsen, Hørg, hov og kirke: Historiske og arkæologiske vikingetidsstudier (Copenhagen, 1966), 280; Anette Lassen, Oden på kristent pergament: En teksthistorisk studie (Copenhagen, 2011).
27. DuBois, Nordic Religions in the Viking Age, 153; Michael Müller-Wille, Das wikingerzeitliche Gräberfeld von Thumby-Bienebek (Kr. Rendsburg-Eckernförde), Offa-Bücher 36 (Neumünster, 1976), 1.54–55. [272]
28. Landnámabók 218, trans. Herman Pálsson and Paul Edwards, The Book of Settlements: Landnámabók (Winnipeg, 1972), 97. About Landnámabók as a historical source, see Orri Vésteinsson and Adolf Friðriksson, “Creating a Past: A Historiography of the Settlement of Iceland,” in Contact, Continuity and Collapse: The Norse Colonization of the North Atlantic, ed. James Barrett, Studies in the Early Middle Ages 5 (Turnhout, 2003), 139–161.
29. Rimbert, Life of Ansgar 11, trans. Robinson, 49.
30. Widukind of Corvey, Res gestae Saxonicae 3.65, ed. Paul Hirsch and Hans-Eberhard Lohmann, Die Sachsengeschichte des Widukind von Korvei, MGH SS rer. Germ. (Hanover, 1935) , 140.
31. Alcuini sive Albini epistolae 6, ed. Ernst Dümmler, MGH: Epp. 4 (Berlin, 1895), 31.
32. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 12–16.
33. Eric Knibbs, Ansgar, Rimbert, and the Forged Foundations of Hamburg-Bremen (Farnham, Surrey, 2011).
34. Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia, 149.
35. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 994, trans. Swanton, 126–129.
36. Oddr Snorrason, The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, trans. Theodore M. Andersson (Ithaca, N.Y., 2003).
37. Sigvatr, Lausavísa 19, ed. and trans. R. D. Fulk, Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.2.724–725.
38. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, N 210.
39. MGH: Concilia 6.1.140 and 158.
40. MGH: Auctores antiquissimi 9.574.
1. Peterson, Nordiskt runnamnslexikon med tillägg av frekvenstabeller och finalalfabetisk ordlista. 2. Klaus Düwel, Runenkunde (4th ed. Stuttgart, 2008), 159.
3. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 53.
4. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sm 37.
5. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sm 36.
6. Helmer Gustavson, “Runorna som officerens hemliga skrift och allmogens vardagsvara,” in Gamla och nya runor: Artiklar 1982–2001 (Stockholm, 2003), 113–121; Tore Janson, Språken och historien (Stockholm, 1997), 118.
7. Mats G. Larsson, Kensington 1998: Runfyndet som gäckade världen (Stockholm, 2012).
8. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, DR 1; see also Düwel, Runenkunde, 102.
9. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Ög 136; see also Erik Brate, Östergötlands runinskrifter, Sveriges runinskrifter 2 (Stockholm, 1911), 231–255; Elias Wessén, Runstenen vid Röks kyrka, Kungl. Vitterhets-, historie- och antikvitetsakademiens handlingar: Filologisk-filosofiska serien, 5 (Stockholm, 1958); Bo Ralph, “Gåtan som lösning—Ett bidrag till förståelsen av Rökstenens runinskrift,” Maal og minne (2007): 133–157.
10. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Öl 1; Roberta Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry: The Dróttkvætt Stanza, Islandica 42 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978); see also Roberta Frank, “Like a Bridge of Stones,” Yale Review 99, no. 4 (2011), 170–177. [273]
11. Beowulf, lines 859–861, trans. Liuzza, 74–75.
12. DuBois, Nordic Religions in the Viking Age, 85–91.
13. Sveinbjörn Egilsson and Finnur Jónsson, Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ Septentrionalis: Ordbog over det norsk-islandske skjaldesprog (2nd ed. Copenhagen, 1931).
14. Sveinbjörn and Finnur, Lexicon poeticum.
15. Sven Söderberg and Erik Brate, Ölands runinskrifter, Sveriges runinskrifter 1 (Stockholm, 1900), 14–37; Richard Cleasby, Guðbrandur Vigfússon, and William A. Craigie, An Icelandic–English Dictionary (2nd ed. Oxford, 1957), 766.
16. Beowulf, 497–498, trans. Liuzza, 64.
17. Arnórr jarlaskáld Þórðarson, Hrynhenda, Magnússdrápa, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.181–206.
18. Arnórr, Hrynhenda, Magnússdrápa 16, ed. and trans. Whaley, 202; Arnórr, Magnússdrápa 2, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.209–210
19. Krákumál 14, ed. Finnur, Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning, B:1, 652; Tindr Hallkelsson, Hákonardrápa 1, ed. Russell Poole in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.338–341. See also Roberta Frank, “Quid Hinieldus cum feminis: The Hero and Women at the End of the First Millennium,” in La functione dell’eroe germanico: Storicita, metafora, paradigma, ed. Teresa Paroli (Rome, 1995), 21.
20. Haraldr harðráði Sigurðarson, Lausavísur 4, ed. and trans. Kari Ellen Gade in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.46–47; see also Jesch, Women in the Viking Age.
21. Þjóðólfr, Arnórsson, Stanzas about Magnús Óláfsson in Danaveldi 1, ed. and trans. Diana Whaley in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.1.88.
22. Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson, Háleygjatal 12, ed. and trans. Russell Poole in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.211–212. See also Roberta Frank, “The Lay of the Land in Skaldic Praise Poetry,” in Myth in Early Northwest Europe, ed. Stephen O. Glosecki (Tempe, Ariz., 2007), 175–196.
23. Janet Nelson, “The Frankish Empire,” in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings, ed. Peter Sawyer (Oxford, 1997), 19–47, points out that no Viking rapes are mentioned in the Annals of St-Bertin, and I have not seen any such reference in any other of the contemporary year-by-year accounts of Viking attacks, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Annals of Fulda.
24. Þjóðólfr, Stanzas 4, ed. and trans. Whaley, 91.
25. Kulturhistoriskt lexikon för nordisk medeltid från vikingatid till reformationstid (Malmö, 1956–1982), 19.468–469, s.v. “Valkyrje,” by Anne Holtsmark.
26. Þórbjörn hornklofi, Haraldskvæði (Hrafnsmál) 1 and 3, ed. R. D. Fulk in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 1.1.94–97. Quotation below is from stanza 6. Unlike Fulk, I have chosen not to emend the text of the manuscripts: “beak” and “mouth” are in the singular, while “ravens” appears in the plural.
27. Rǫgnvaldr jarl Kali Kolsson, Lausavísa 15, ed. and trans. Judith Jesch in Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, ed. Ross, 2.2.592–593.
28. Sandra Ballif Straubhaar, Old Norse Women’s Poetry: The Voices of Female Skalds (Rochester, N.Y., 2011). [274]
29. Jesch, Women in the Viking Age, 166–167.
30. James Graham-Campbell, Viking Art (London, 2013), 58–59.
31. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, Sö 101. See also David M. Wilson, Vikingatidens konst, trans. Henrika Ringbom, Signums svenska konsthistoria (Lund, 1995), 166–174; Klaus Düwel, “On the Sigurd Representations in Great Britain and Scandinavia,” in Languages and Cultures: Studies in Honor of Edgar C. Polomé, ed. Mohammad Ali Jazayery and Werner Winter (Berlin, 1988), 133–156; and Nancy L. Wicker, “The Scandinavian Animal Styles in Response to Mediterranean and Christian Narrative Art,” in The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD 300–1300, ed. Martin Carver (York, 2003), 531–550.
32. Erik Nylén and Jan Peder Lamm, Bildstenar (3rd ed. Stockholm, 2003).
33. David M. Wilson, “The Development of Viking Art,” in The Viking World, ed. Stefan Brink and Neil Price (Abingdon, 2008), 321–338.
34. Wilson, Vikingatidens konst; Graham-Campbell, Viking Art.
35. Wilson, “The Development of Viking Art.”
36. Mårten Stenberger, “Erikstorpsspännet och Hedeby,” Fornvännen 45 (1950): 36–40.
37. Samnordisk runtextdatabas, U 871.
1. Theodore M. Andersson and Kari Ellen Gade, Morkinskinna: The Earliest Icelandic Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings (1030–1157), Islandica 51 (Ithaca, N.Y., 2000), 271; Kelly DeVries, The Norwegian Invasion of England in 1066, Warfare in History (Woodbridge, U.K., 1999), 291.
2. David Bates, Normandy before 1066 (London, 1982).
3. Good surveys of medieval Scandinavian history in English are Birgit Sawyer and P. H. Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia: From Conversion to Reformation, circa 800–1500, The Nordic Series 17 (Minneapolis, 1993); and Sverre Bagge, Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation (Princeton, N.J., 2014).
4. Lindkvist, Plundring, skatter och den feodala statens framväxt, 61.
5. Lindkvist, Plundring, skatter och den feodala statens framväxt.
6. Niels Lund, Lið, leding og landeværn: Hær og samfund i Danmark i ældre middelalder (Roskilde, 1996); Rikke Malmros, Vikingernes syn på militær og samfund belyst gennem skjaldenes fyrstedigtning (Århus, 2010); Bagge, From Viking Stronghold to Christian Kingdom, 72–79.
7. Bagge, Cross and Scepter.
8. Vegard Skånland, Det eldste norske provinsialstatutt (Oslo, 1969).
